Variable | N | % | Breast milk lead concentration | Breast milk/venous blood lead ratio | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
< 5 μg/L | ≥ 5 μg/L | χ2/Fisher’s exact test | p-value | < 25% | ≥ 25% | χ2/Fisher’s exact test | p-value | |||||||
n | % | n | % | n | % | n | % | |||||||
Age (years) | ||||||||||||||
< 25 | 35 | 43.8 | 30 | 37.5 | 5 | 6.3 | 0.02 | 0.58 | 12 | 15.0 | 23 | 28.8 | 0.54 | 0.46 |
≥ 25 | 45 | 56.3 | 39 | 48.8 | 6 | 7.5 | 12 | 15.0 | 33 | 41.3 | ||||
Number of children | ||||||||||||||
≤ 2 | 43 | 53.8 | 36 | 45.0 | 7 | 8.8 | 0.5 | 0.53 | 14 | 17.5 | 29 | 36.3 | 0.29 | 0.59 |
> 2 | 37 | 46.3 | 33 | 41.3 | 4 | 5.0 | 10 | 12.5 | 27 | 33.8 | ||||
Breastfeeding duration (months) | ||||||||||||||
< 6 | 34 | 42.5 | 29 | 36.3 | 5 | 6.3 | 0.05 | 0.54 | 8 | 10.0 | 26 | 32.5 | 1.18 | 0.33 |
≥ 6 | 46 | 57.5 | 40 | 50.0 | 6 | 7.5 | 16 | 20.0 | 30 | 37.5 | ||||
Residence | ||||||||||||||
Rural areas | 52 | 65.0 | 49 | 61.3 | 3 | 3.8 | 7.62 | 0.01 | 20 | 25.0 | 32 | 40.0 | 5.07 | 0.02 |
Urban areas | 28 | 35.0 | 20 | 25.0 | 8 | 10.0 | 4 | 5.0 | 24 | 30.0 | ||||
Chipping house paint | ||||||||||||||
No | 54 | 67.5 | 48 | 60.0 | 6 | 7.5 | 0.93 | 0.26 | 18 | 22.5 | 36 | 45.0 | 0.88 | 0.35 |
Yes | 26 | 32.5 | 21 | 26.3 | 5 | 6.3 | 6 | 7.5 | 20 | 25.0 | ||||
Distance from paints shop | ||||||||||||||
Close (< 200 m) | 15 | 18.8 | 14 | 17.5 | 1 | 1.3 | 0.77 | 0.46 | 3 | 3.8 | 12 | 15.0 | 0.88 | 0.35 |
Far (> 200 m) | 65 | 81.3 | 55 | 68.8 | 10 | 12.5 | 21 | 26.3 | 44 | 55.0 | ||||
Distance from industrial area | ||||||||||||||
Close (< 200 m) | 22 | 27.5 | 18 | 22.5 | 4 | 5.0 | 0.48 | 0.72 | 6 | 7.5 | 16 | 20.0 | 0.11 | 0.74 |
Far (> 200 m) | 58 | 72.5 | 51 | 63.8 | 7 | 8.8 | 18 | 22.5 | 40 | 50.0 | ||||
Distance from gas station | ||||||||||||||
Close (< 200 m) | 12 | 15.0 | 11 | 13.8 | 1 | 1.3 | 0.35 | 0.69 | 4 | 5.0 | 8 | 10.0 | 0.07 | 0.79 |
Far (> 200 m) | 68 | 85.0 | 58 | 72.5 | 10 | 12.5 | 20 | 25.0 | 48 | 60.0 | ||||
Monthly household income (US$) | ||||||||||||||
< 1000 | 64 | 80.0 | 56 | 70.0 | 8 | 10.0 | 0.42 | 0.69 | 21 | 26.3 | 43 | 53.8 | 1.21 | 0.27 |
≥ 1000 | 16 | 20.0 | 13 | 16.3 | 3 | 3.8 | 3 | 3.8 | 13 | 16.3 | ||||
Educational level | ||||||||||||||
School | 54 | 67.5 | 47 | 58.8 | 7 | 8.8 | 0.09 | 1.00 | 16 | 20.0 | 38 | 47.5 | 0.01 | 0.92 |
University | 26 | 32.5 | 22 | 27.5 | 4 | 5.0 | 8 | 10.0 | 18 | 22.5 | ||||
Employment | ||||||||||||||
Unemployed | 70 | 87.5 | 60 | 75.0 | 10 | 12.5 | 0.13 | 1.00 | 23 | 28.8 | 47 | 58.8 | 2.18 | 0.14 |
Employed | 10 | 12.5 | 9 | 11.3 | 1 | 1.3 | 1 | 1.3 | 9 | 11.3 | ||||
Husband’s occupation | ||||||||||||||
White-collar job | 23 | 28.8 | 18 | 22.5 | 5 | 6.3 | 1.72 | 0.28 | 4 | 5.0 | 19 | 23.8 | 2.44 | 0.12 |
Blue-collar job | 57 | 71.3 | 51 | 63.8 | 6 | 7.5 | 20 | 25.0 | 37 | 46.3 | ||||
Worked in agriculture | ||||||||||||||
No | 55 | 68.8 | 45 | 56.3 | 10 | 12.5 | 2.88 | 0.16 | 12 | 15.0 | 43 | 53.8 | 5.61 | 0.02 |
Yes | 25 | 31.3 | 24 | 30.0 | 1 | 1.3 | 12 | 15.0 | 13 | 16.3 | ||||
Use of cosmetics | ||||||||||||||
No | 34 | 42.5 | 29 | 36.3 | 5 | 6.3 | 0.05 | 1.00 | 9 | 11.3 | 25 | 31.3 | 0.35 | 0.55 |
Yes | 46 | 57.5 | 40 | 50.0 | 6 | 7.5 | 15 | 18.8 | 31 | 38.8 | ||||
Use of kohla | ||||||||||||||
No | 4 | 5.0 | 4 | 5.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0.66 | 0.64 | 3 | 3.8 | 1 | 1.3 | 4.06 | 0.04 |
Yes | 76 | 95.0 | 65 | 81.3 | 11 | 13.8 | 21 | 26.3 | 55 | 68.8 | ||||
Use of hair dye | ||||||||||||||
No | 38 | 47.5 | 32 | 40.0 | 6 | 7.5 | 0.25 | 0.75 | 15 | 18.8 | 23 | 28.8 | 3.09 | 0.08 |
Yes | 42 | 52.5 | 37 | 46.3 | 5 | 6.3 | 9 | 11.3 | 33 | 41.3 | ||||
Use of clay utensils | ||||||||||||||
No | 76 | 95.0 | 65 | 81.3 | 11 | 0.0 | 0.66 | 0.64 | 21 | 26.3 | 55 | 68.8 | 4.06 | 0.04 |
Yes | 4 | 5.0 | 4 | 5.0 | 0 | 13.8 | 3 | 3.8 | 1 | 1.3 |