Variables | 2000 | 2005 | 2011 | 2016 | 2000–2016 | p for trend |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
aaOR (95% CI) | aaOR (95% CI) | aaOR (95% CI) | aaOR (95% CI) | aaOR (95% CI) | ||
Socioeconomic factors | ||||||
 Maternal education | ||||||
  No schooling | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | P < 0.001 |
  Primary school | 0.89 (0.49, 1.59) | 0.89 (0.53, 1.48) | 0.90 (0.62, 1.33) | 1.39 (0.88, 2.19) | 0.98 (0.81, 1.20) | P = 0.003 |
  Secondary and higher | 0.61 (0.19, 1.89) | 0.69 (0.25, 1.95) | 1.47 (0.59, 3.64) | 1.48 (0.74, 2.97) | 0.99 (0.68, 1.44) | P = 0.001 |
 Maternal employment | ||||||
  No employment | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | P < 0.001 |
  Formal employment | 1.56 (0.76, 3.20) | 0.53 (0.25, 1.11) | 1.03 (0.63, 1.69) | 0.99 (0.58, 1.67) | 0.94 (0.72, 1.21) | P = 0.004 |
  Informal employment | 1.71 (1.17, 2.49) | 1.06 (0.66, 1.71) | 1.27 (0.89, 1.82) | 1.14 (0.74, 1.75) | 1.37 (1.15, 1.63) | P = 0.011 |
 Household wealth index | ||||||
  Poor | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | P = 0.001 |
  Middle | 0.72 (0.47, 1.09) | 1.93 (1.22, 3.06) | 1.43 (0.97, 2.12) | 1.03 (0.61, 1.72) | 1.21 (1.04, 1.53) | P < 0.001 |
  Rich | 1.00 (0.67, 1.48) | 1.54 (0.99, 2.38) | 1.02 (0.65, 1.59) | 0.85 (0.51, 1.42) | 1.20 (0.99, 1.45) | P < 0.001 |
Demographic factors | ||||||
 Maternal age | ||||||
  15–24 years | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | P < 0.001 |
  25–34 years | 0.81 (0.52, 1.26) | 1.03 (0.66, 1.60) | 0.86 (0.59, 1.25) | 1.04 (0.68, 1.59) | 0.87 (0.72, 1.05) | P < 0.001 |
  35–49 years | 0.97 (0.51, 1.82) | 1.13 (0.60, 2.11) | 0.80 (0.47, 1.37) | 1.22 (0.64, 2.33) | 0.91 (0.69, 1.20) | P = 0.653 |
 Birth order | ||||||
  One | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | P < 0.001 |
  2–4 | 0.70 (0.42, 1.27) | 0.83 (0.49, 1.41) | 0.99 (0.62, 1.57) | 1.34 (0.84, 2.13) | 0.95 (0.76, 1.20) | P < 0.001 |
  5+ | 0.55 (0.29, 1.04) | 0.96 (0.50, 1.87) | 0.71 (0.40, 1.26) | 1.09 (0.56, 2.10) | 0.85 (0.63, 1.15) | P = 0.035 |
 Family size | ||||||
   ≤ 3 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | P = 0.001 |
  4–5 | 1.89 (1.00, 3.55) | 1.32 (0.72, 2.41) | 1.86 (1.09, 3.17) | 1.01 (0.55, 1.85) | 1.36 (1.04, 1.79) | P < 0.001 |
  6+ | 2.61 (1.38, 4.94) | 1.19 (0.63, 2.25) | 2.09 (1.18, 3.67) | 1.01 (0.54, 1.89) | 1.46 (1.10, 1.93) | P < 0.001 |
 Listening radio | ||||||
  No | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | P < 0.001 |
  Yes | 1.00 (0.67, 1.52) | 0.81 (0.56, 1.17) | 1.10 (0.80, 1.52) | 0.72 (0.47, 1.10) | 0.90 (0.76, 1.06) | P < 0.001 |
Health service factors | ||||||
 Antenatal visit | ||||||
  None | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | P = 0.018 |
  1–3 visits | 0.69 (0.45, 1.08) | 0.97 (0.66, 1.43) | 0.93 (0.64, 1.35) | 1.63 (1.06, 2.49) | 0.97 (0.80, 1.17) | P < 0.001 |
  4+ visits | 0.86 (0.44, 1.71) | 0.71 (0.39, 1.28) | 0.77 (0.45, 1.30) | 2.26 (1.46, 3.50) | 1.01 (0.79, 1.30) | P < 0.001 |
 Timing of postnatal checkup | ||||||
  None | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | P = 0.145 |
  Within a week | 0.67 (0.33, 1.33) | 1.11 (0.43, 2.85) | 1.25 (0.29, 5.31) | 0.92 (0.40, 2.10) | 0.84 (0.57, 1.22) | – |
  After a week | 0.76 (0.23, 2.47) | 0.87 (0.30, 2.49) | 0.81 (0.23, 2.84) | 0.54 (0.23, 1.29) | 0.69 (0.41, 1.16) | P < 0.001 |
Community level factors | ||||||
 Place of residence | ||||||
  Urban | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | P < 0.001 |
  Rural | 0.77 (0.40, 1.49) | 0.81 (0.38, 1.70) | 1.01 (0.51, 2.00) | 1.32 (0.76, 2.31) | 1.08 (0.80, 1.45) | P < 0.001 |
 Region of residence | ||||||
  Large central regions | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | P < 0.001 |
  Small peripheral regions | 0.24 (0.16, 0.38) | 0.30 (0.19, 0.49) | 0.27 (0.18, 0.40) | 0.66 (0.44, 0.90) | 0.37 (0.31, 0.45) | P = 0.015 |
  Metropolis | 0.16 (0.09, 0.30) | 0.37 (0.18, 0.76) | 0.56 (0.33, 0.95) | 0.83 (0.54, 1.28) | 0.46 (0.36, 0.58) | P < 0.001 |